Irrigation

The supplemental use of water for course play and non-play areas is essential to supporting healthy turfgrass and landscape plant health. It is also necessary to sustaining optimal course playability, aesthetics, marketability, and club membership participation.

The purpose of this section is to identify best management practices related to water use that conserve and protect water resources. It is important to keep in mind that, while new technology makes many tasks easier or less labor-intensive, the principles discussed in this section are important to understand and apply to protect water quality and quantity and surrounding natural resources.

Additionally, irrigation BMP may provide an economic, regulatory compliance, and environmental stewardship advantage to those who consider them part of their irrigation management plan. BMP are not intended to increase labor or place an undue burden on the owner/superintendent. If applied appropriately, BMP can help stabilize labor cost, extend equipment life, and limit repair and overall personal and public liability.

The monetary investment in non-structural, BMP costs little to nothing to implement in a daily course water-use plan. Other advantages to using BMP include: reduced administrative management stress, improved employee communication and direction, and effective facilities training procedures.

Several benefits of adopting BMP are:

Conserving the water supply
Protecting existing water quality
Maintaining optimal ball roll and playing conditions
Saving water and electricity
Increasing pump and equipment life longevity
Demonstrating responsible environmental stewardship
Retaining knowledgeable and effective employees

Water Management Approaches

Conservation and Efficiency

Conservation and efficiency considers the strategic use of appropriate course and irrigation design, plant selection, computerized and data-integrated scheduling, and alternative water quality/supply options that maximize plant health benefits and reduce the potential for negative impacts on natural resources.

Resource Protection

Resource protection is an integrated approach that includes irrigation practices as part of the course design, pesticide and nutrient practices, and regulatory compliance measures and structural measures as they concern environmental stewardship and policy.

Regulatory Considerations

Principles

Golf course owners are responsible for contacting federal, state, and local water use authorities at the pre-and post-construction phase to determine annual or specific water consumption (water rights), permitting guidelines, and other requirements allowed by regulators.
Superintendents have a responsibility to adhere to water-quality standard rules regarding groundwater and surface water flows resulting from the removal of water for irrigation use.

Best Management Practices

Design and/or maintain a system to meet site’s peak water requirements under normal conditions and also be flexible enough to adapt to various water demands and local restrictions.
Develop an annual water budget for the golf course.
Look for ways to increase efficiency and reduce energy use associated with irrigation systems and practices.
Demonstrate good stewardship practices by supplementing watering only for the establishment of new planting and new sod, hand watering of critical hot spots, and watering-in of chemicals and fertilizers (if permissible).
Protect aquatic life and impairment of water systems by adhering to state and local water withdrawal allocations (gallons/day).
Design an irrigation system that delivers water with maximum efficiency.

Irrigation Water Suitability

Principles

Golf course designers and managers should endeavor to identify and use alternative supply sources to conserve freshwater drinking supplies, promote plant health, and protect the environment.
The routine use of potable water supply is not a preferred practice; therefore, municipal drinking water should be considered only when there is no alternative.
Studies of water supplies are recommended for irrigation systems, as are studies of waterbodies or flows on, near, and under the property. These maybe helpful to properly design a course’s stormwater systems, water features, and to protect water resources.
When necessary, sodic water system treatment options should be included in the budget to address water quality and equipment maintenance.

Best Management Practices

Use alternative water supplies/sources that are appropriate and sufficiently available to supplement water needs.
Use salt-tolerant varieties of turf and plants to mitigate saline conditions resulting from an alternative water supply or source, if necessary.
Amend sodic water systems appropriately (with gypsum or an appropriate ion) to minimize sodium buildup in soil.
Flush with freshwater or use amending materials regularly to move salts out of the root zone and/or pump brackish water to keep salts moving out of the root zone.
Monitor sodium and bicarbonate buildup in the soil using salinity sensors.
Routinely monitor shallow groundwater table of freshwater for saltwater intrusion or contamination of heavy metals and nutrients.
Reclaimed, effluent, and other non-potable water supply mains must have a thorough cross-connection and backflow prevention device in place and operating correctly.
Post signage in accordance with local utility and state requirements when reclaimed water is in use.
Account for the nutrients in effluent (reuse/reclaimed) water when making fertilizer calculations.
Monitor reclaimed water tests regularly for dissolved salt content.
Where practical, use reverse-osmosis filtration systems to reduce chlorides (salts) from saline groundwater.
Monitor the quantity of water withdrawn to avoid aquatic life impairment.
Identify appropriate water supply sources that meet seasonal and bulk water allocations for grow-in and routine maintenance needs.

Water Conservation and Efficient Use Planning

Principles

Document actual watering practices, especially to show savings in water use over averages. Communication should be maintained with water managers, golf course members, and the public to explain what you are doing and why.
Potable water supplies in many areas of the United States are limited, and demand continues to grow. Our challenge is to find solutions to maintain the quality of golf while using less water.
BMP and educational programs are necessary to change the public’s mind-set toward the inevitable changes in water-related issues.
Some courses are being designed using a “target golf” concept that minimizes the acreage of irrigated turf. Existing golf courses can make an effort to convert out-of-play areas turf to naturally adapted native plants, grasses, or ground covers to reduce water use and augment the site’s aesthetic appeal.

Best Management Practices

Selecting drought-tolerant varieties of turfgrasses can help maintain an attractive and high-quality playing surface, while minimizing water use.
Non-play areas may be planted with drought-resistant native or other well-adapted, noninvasive plants that provide an attractive and low-maintenance landscape.
Native plant species are important in providing wildlife with habitat and food sources. After establishment, site-appropriate plants normally require little to no irrigation.
The system should be operated to provide only the water that is actually needed by the plants, or to meet occasional special needs such as salt removal.
If properly designed, rain and runoff captured in water hazards and stormwater ponds may provide supplemental water under normal conditions, though backup sources may be needed during severe drought.
During a drought, closely monitor soil moisture levels. Whenever practicable, irrigate at times when the least amount of evaporative loss will occur.
Control invasive plants or plants that use excessive water.

Irrigation System Design

Principles

A well designed irrigation system should operate at peak efficiency to reduce energy, labor and natural resources.
Irrigation systems should be properly designed and installed to improve water use efficiency.
An efficient irrigation system maximizes water use, reduces operational cost, conserves supply and protects water resources.

Best Management Practices

Design should account for optimal distribution efficiency and effective root-zone moisture coverage. Target 80% or better Distribution Uniformity (DU).
Design should allow the putting surface and slopes and surrounds to be watered independently.
The design package should include a general irrigation schedule with recommendations and instructions on modifying the schedule for local climatic soil and growing conditions. It should include the base ET rate for the particular location.
The application rate must not exceed the infiltration rate, ability of the soil to absorb and retain the water applied during any one application. Conduct saturated hydraulic conductivity tests periodically.
The design operating pressure must not be greater than the available source pressure.
The design operating pressure must account for peak-use times and supply line pressures at final buildout for the entire system.
The system should be flexible enough to meet a site’s peak water requirements and allow for operating modifications to meet seasonal irrigation changes or local restrictions.
Turf and landscape areas should be zoned separately. Specific use areas zoned separately; greens, tees, primary roughs, secondary roughs, fairways, native, trees, shrubs, etc.
Design should account for the need to leach out salt buildup from poor-quality water sources by providing access to freshwater.
Only qualified specialists should install the irrigation system.
Construction must be consistent with the design.
The designer must approve any design changes before construction.
Construction and materials must meet existing standards and criteria.
Prior to construction, all underground cables, pipes, and other obstacles must be identified and their locations flagged.
Permanent irrigation sprinklers and other distribution devices should be spaced according to the manufacturer’s recommendations.
Space should be based on average wind conditions during irrigation.
For variable wind directions, triangular spacing is more uniform than square spacing.
Distribution devices and pipe sizes should be designed for optimal uniform coverage.
The first and last distribution device should have no more than a 10% difference in flow rate. This usually corresponds to about a 20% difference in pressure.
Distribution equipment (such as sprinklers, rotors, and micro-irrigation devices) in a given zone must have the same precipitation rate.
Heads for turf areas should be spaced for head-to-head coverage.
Water supply systems (for example, wells, and pipelines) should be designed for varying control devices, rain shutoff devices, and backflow prevention.
Water conveyance systems should be designed with thrust blocks and air-release valves.
Flow velocity must be 5 feet per second or less.
Pipelines should be designed to provide the system with the appropriate pressure required for maximum irrigation uniformity.
Pressure-regulating or compensating equipment must be used where the system pressure exceeds the manufacturer’s recommendations.
Equipment with check valves must be used in low areas to prevent low head drainage.
Isolation valves should be installed in a manner that allows critical areas to remain functional.
Manual quick-coupler valves should be installed near greens, tees, and bunkers so these can be hand-watered during severe droughts.
Install part-circle heads along lakes, ponds, and wetlands margins.
Use part-circle or adjustable heads to avoid overspray of impervious areas such as roadways and sidewalks.
Update multi-row sprinklers with single head control to conserve water and to enhance efficiency.
Incorporate multiple nozzle configurations to add flexibility and enhance efficiency/distribution.
Ensure heads are set at level ground and not on slopes.

Irrigation Pumping System

Principles

Pump stations should be sized to provide adequate flow and pressure. They should be equipped with control systems that protect distribution piping, provide for emergency shutdown necessitated by line breaks, and allow maximum system scheduling flexibility.
Variable frequency drive (VFD) pumping systems should be considered if dramatically variable flow rates are required, if electrical transients (such spikes and surges) are infrequent, and if the superintendent has access to qualified technical support.
Design pumping systems for energy conservation.

Best Management Practices

The design operating pressure must not be greater than the available source pressure.
The design operating pressure must account for peak-use times and supply-line pressures at final buildout for the entire system.
Maintain the air-relief and vacuum-breaker valves by using hydraulic-pressure-sustaining values.
Install VFD systems to lengthen the life of older pipes and fittings until the golf course can afford a new irrigation system.
An irrigation system should also have high- and low-pressure sensors that shut down the system in case of breaks and malfunctions.
Pumps should be sized to provide adequate flow and pressure.
Pumps should be equipped with control systems to protect distribution piping.
System checks and routine maintenance on pumps, valves, programs, fittings, and sprinklers should follow the manufacturer’s recommendations.
Monitor pumping station power consumption.
Monthly bills should be monitored over time to detect a possible increase in power usage.
Compare the power used with the amount of water pumped. Requiring more power to pump the same amount of water may indicate a problem with the pump motor(s), control valves, or distribution system.
Quarterly checks of amperage by qualified pump personnel may more accurately indicate increased power usage and thus potential problems.

Irrigation System Program and Scheduling

Principles

Irrigation scheduling must take plant water requirements and soil intake capacity into account to prevent excess water use that could lead to leaching and runoff.
Plant water needs are determined by evapotranspiration (ET) rates, recent rainfall, recent temperature extremes and soil moisture.
Irrigation should not occur on a calendar-based schedule, but should be based on ET rates and soil moisture replacement.
An irrigation system should be operated based only on the moisture needs of the turfgrass, or to water-in a fertilizer or chemical application as directed by the label.
Responsible irrigation management conserves water, reduces nutrient and pesticide movement.
Time-clock-controlled irrigation systems preceded computer-controlled systems, and many are still in use today. Electric/mechanical time clocks cannot automatically adjust for changing ET rates. Frequent adjustment is necessary to compensate for the needs of individual turfgrass areas.

Best Management Practices

The reliability of older clock-control station timing depends on the calibration of the timing devices; this should be done periodically, but at least seasonally.
An irrigation system should have rain sensors to shut off the system after 0.25 to 0.5 inch of rain is received. Computerized systems allow a superintendent to call in and cancel the program if it is determined that the course has received adequate rainfall.
Install control devices to allow for maximum system scheduling flexibility.
Generally, granular fertilizer applications should receive 0.25 inch of irrigation to move the particles off the leaves while minimizing runoff.
Irrigation quantities should not exceed the available moisture storage in the root zone.
Irrigation rates should not exceed the maximum ability of the soil to absorb and hold the water applied at any one time.
Irrigation schedule should coincide with other cultural practices (for example, the application of nutrients, herbicides, or other chemicals).
Account for nutrients in effluent supply when making fertilizer calculations.
Irrigation should occur in the early morning hours before air temperatures rise and relative humidity drops.
Base plant water needs should be determined by ET rates, recent rainfall, recent temperature extremes, and soil moisture.
Use mowing, verticutting, aeration, nutrition, and other cultural practices to control water loss and to encourage conservation and efficiency.
Visually monitor for localized dry conditions or hot spots to identify poor irrigation efficiency or a failed system device.
Use predictive models to estimate soil moisture and the best time to irrigate.
Avoid use of a global setting; make adjustments to watering times per head.
Base water times on actual site conditions for each head and zone.
Adjust irrigation run times based on current local meteorological data.
Use computed daily ET rate to adjust run times to meet the turf’s moisture needs.
Manually adjust automated ET data to reflect wet and dry areas on the course.
Use soil moisture sensors to assist in scheduling or to create on-demand irrigation schedules.
Use multiple soil moisture sensors to reflect soil moisture levels.
Install soil moisture sensors in the root zone for each irrigation zone to enhance scheduled timer-based run times.
Place soil moisture sensors in a representative location within the irrigation zone. Install a soil moisture sensor in the driest irrigation zone of the irrigation system.
Wired soil moisture systems should be installed to prevent damage from aerification.
Periodically perform catch-can uniformity tests.
Reducing dry spots and soil compaction improves water infiltration, which in turn reduces water use and runoff in other areas.
Install emergency shutdown devices to address line breaks.

Turf Drought Response

Principles

The presence of visual symptoms of moisture stress is a simple way to determine when irrigation is needed.
Use a soil moisture meter to determine moisture needs of greens and tees.
Managers of golf greens cannot afford to wait until symptoms occur, because unacceptable turf quality may result.
Be prepared for extended drought/restrictions by developing a written drought management plan.

Best Management Practices

Waiting until visual symptoms appear before irrigating is a method best used for low-maintenance areas, such as golf course roughs and, possibly, fairways.
Use soil moisture meters to determine moisture thresholds and plant needs.
Irrigating too shallowly encourages shallow rooting, increases soil compaction, and favors pest outbreaks.
For golf greens and tees, the majority of roots are in the top several inches of soil.
For fairways and roughs, use infrequent, deep irrigation to supply sufficient water for plants and to encourage deep rooting.
Proper cultural practices such as mowing height, irrigation frequency, and irrigation amounts should be employed to promote healthy, deep root development and reduce irrigation requirements.
Create a drought management plan for the facility that identifies steps to be taken to reduce irrigation/water use and protects critical areas, etc.
Use appropriate turfgrass species adapted to the location of the golf course being managed.

Irrigation System Quality

Principles

Irrigation system maintenance on a golf course involves four major efforts: calibration or auditing, preventive maintenance (PM), corrective maintenance, and record keeping.
Personnel charged with maintaining any golf course irrigation system face numerous challenges. This is particularly true for courses with older or outdated equipment.
Good system management starts with good preventive maintenance (PM) procedures and recordkeeping. Maintaining a system is more than just fixing heads.
Corrective maintenance is simply the act of fixing what is broken. It may be as simple as cleaning a clogged orifice, or as complex as a complete renovation of the irrigation system.
As maintenance costs increase, the question of whether to renovate arises. Renovating a golf course irrigation system can improve system efficiencies, conserve water, improve playability, and lower operating costs.

Best Management Practices

Respond to day-to-day failures in a timely manner, maintain the integrity of the system as designed, and keep good records.
System checks and routine maintenance on pumps, valves, programs, fittings, and sprinklers should follow the manufacturer’s recommendations.
The system should be inspected daily for proper operation by checking computer logs and visually inspecting the pump station, remote controllers, and irrigation heads. A visual inspection should be carried out for leaks, misaligned or inoperable heads, and chronic wet or dry spots, so that adjustments can be made.
Systems need to be observed in operation at least weekly. This can be done during maintenance programs such as fertilizer or chemical applications where irrigation is required, or the heads can be brought on-line for a few seconds and observed for proper operation. This process detects controller or communications failures, stuck or misaligned heads, and clogged or broken nozzles.
Check filter operations frequently. An unusual increase in the amount of debris may indicate problems with the water source.
Even under routine conditions, keeping filters operating properly prolongs the life of an existing system and reduces pumping costs.
Keep records of filter changes, as this could be an early sign of system corrosion, well problems, or declining irrigation water quality.
Application/distribution efficiencies should be checked annually. Implement a PM program to replace worn components before they waste fertilizer, chemicals, and water.
Conduct a periodic professional irrigation audit at least once every five years.
Document equipment run-time hours. Ensure that all lubrication, overhauls, and other preventive maintenance are completed according to the manufacturer’s schedule.
Gather together all of the documentation collected as part of the PM program, along with corrective maintenance records for analysis.
Correctly identifying problems and their costs helps to determine what renovations are appropriate.
Collecting information on the cost of maintaining the system as part of system overall evaluation, allows for planning necessary upgrades, replacement etc. and to compare after changes are made.

Pond Location and Design

Principles

Understanding natural lake processes and accommodating them in the design and management of a pond can create significant aesthetic value and reduce operational costs.
Lakes and ponds have several distinct defining characteristics. Their size, shape, and depth may all affect how they respond to various environmental inputs.
Most golf courses plan their lakes and water hazards to be a part of the stormwater control and treatment system. This usually works well for all concerned. However, natural waters may not be considered treatment systems and must be protected.
Lakes and ponds may be used as a source of irrigation water. It is important to consider these functions when designing and constructing the ponds.
Careful design may significantly reduce future operating expenses for lake and aquatic plant management.

Best Management Practices

Consult with a qualified golf course architect, working in conjunction with a stormwater engineer, to develop an effective stormwater management system that complies with the requirements of the water management district/department or other permitting agency.
When constructing drainage systems, pay close attention to engineering details such as subsoil preparation, the placement of gravel, slopes, and backfilling.
Where practical, internal golf course drains should discharge through pretreatment zones and/or vegetative buffers to help remove nutrients and sediments.
Studies of water supplies are needed for irrigation systems, and studies of waterbodies or flows on, near, and under the property are needed to properly design a course’s stormwater systems and water features, and to protect water resources.
Peninsular projections and long, narrow fingers into ponds may prevent water mixing. Ponds that are too shallow may reach high temperatures, leading to low oxygen levels and promoting algal growth and excess sedimentation.
In shallow or nutrient-impacted ponds, the use of aeration equipment may be required to maintain acceptable dissolved oxygen (DO) levels in the water.

Pond Use and Maintenance

Principles

Successful pond management should include a clear statement of goals and priorities to guide the development of the BMP necessary to meet those goals. Some of the challenges facing superintendents in maintaining the quality of golf course ponds are as follows:
- Low DO
- Sedimentation
- Changes in plant populations
- Nuisance vegetation
- Maintenance of littoral shelves
- Vegetation on the lakeshore
Each pond has regions or zones that significantly influence water quality and are crucial in maintaining the ecological balance of the system. It is important for the manager to understand their function and how good water quality can be maintained if these zones (riparian zone, littoral zone, limnetic zone, and benthic zone) are properly managed.
Surface water sources can present problems with algal and bacteria growth. Algal cells and organic residues of algae can pass through irrigation system filters and form aggregates that may plug emitters.
Pond leaks should be controlled and managed properly.
Use an expert in aquatic management to help develop and monitor pond management programs.

Best Management Practices

Use leak controls in the form of dike compaction, natural-soil liners, soil additives, commercial liners, drain tile, or other approved methods.
Maintain a riparian buffer to filter the nutrients and sediment in runoff.
Reduce the frequency of mowing at the lake edge and collect or direct clippings to upland areas.
Prevent overthrowing fertilizer into ponds. Practice good fertilizer management to reduce nutrient runoff into ponds, which causes algae blooms and ultimately reduces DO levels.
Establish a special management zone around pond edges.
Dispose of grass clippings where runoff will not carry them back to the lake.
Encourage clumps of native emergent vegetation at the shoreline.
Maintain water flow through lakes, if they are interconnected.
Establish wetlands where water enters lakes to slow water flow and trap sediments.
Maintain appropriate silt fencing and BMP on projects upstream to reduce erosion and the resulting sedimentation.
Manipulate water levels to prevent low levels that result in warmer temperatures and lowered DO levels.
Aerate ponds and dredge or remove sediment before it becomes a problem.

Pond Water-Level Monitor

Principle

Evaporation losses are higher in some regions than others and vary from year to year and within the year. However, evaporative losses could approach 6 inches per month during the summer. Aquatic plants are more difficult to control in shallow water.

Best Management Practices

A pond should hold surplus storage of at least 10 percent of full storage.
Provide an alternative source for ponds that may require supplemental recharge from another water source such as a well during high-demand periods.
Estimated losses from evaporation and seepage should be added to the recommended depth of the pond.

Metering

Principles

Rainfall may vary from location to location on a course; the proper use of rain gauges, rain shut-off devices, flow meters, soil moisture sensors, and/or other irrigation management devices should be incorporated into the site’s irrigation schedule.
It is also important to measure the amount of water that is actually delivered through the irrigation system, via a water meter or a calibrated flow-measurement device.
Knowing the flow or volume will help determine how well the irrigation system and irrigation schedule are working.

Best Management Practices

Calibrate equipment periodically to compensate for wear in pumps, nozzles, and metering systems.
Properly calibrated flow meters, soil moisture sensors, rain shut-off devices, and/or other automated methods should be used to manage irrigation.
Flow meters should have a run of pipe that is straight enough — both downstream and upstream — to prevent turbulence and bad readings.
Flow meters can be used to determine how much water is applied.

Irrigation Leak Detection

Principle

Irrigation systems are complex systems that should be closely monitored to ensure leaks are quickly detected and corrected.
Golf courses without hydraulic pressure-sustaining valves are much more prone to irrigation pipe and fitting breaks because of surges in the system, creating more downtime for older systems. A good preventive maintenance program is very important.

Best Management Practices

Monitor water meters or other measuring devices for unusually high or low readings to detect possible leaks or other problems in the system. Make any needed repairs.
An irrigation system should also have high- and low-pressure sensors that shut down the system in case of breaks and malfunctions.
The system should be monitored daily for malfunctions and breaks. It is also a good practice to log the amount of water pumped each day.
Document and periodically review the condition of infrastructure (such as pipes, wires, and fittings). If the system requires frequent repairs, determine why these failures are occurring. Pipe failures may be caused not only by material failure, but also by problems with the pump station.
Ensure that control systems provide for emergency shutdowns caused by line breaks, and allow maximum system scheduling flexibility.

Sprinkler Maintenance

Principles

Good system management starts with good preventive maintenance (PM) procedures and record keeping. This can be done during maintenance programs such as fertilizer or chemical applications where irrigation is required, or the heads can be brought on-line for a few seconds and observed for proper operation.
Maintaining a system is more than just fixing heads. It also includes documenting system- and maintenance-related details so that potential problems can be addressed before expensive repairs are needed. It also provides a basis for evaluating renovation or replacement options.
Be proactive; if the system requires frequent repairs, it is necessary to determine why these failures are occurring.
- Pipe failures may be caused not only by material failure, but also by problems with the pump station.
- Wiring problems could be caused by corrosion, rodent damage, or frequent lightning or power surges.
- Control tubing problems could result from poor filtration.

Best Management Practices

System checks and routine maintenance on pumps, valves, programs, fittings, and sprinklers should follow the manufacturer’s recommendations.
The system should be inspected routinely for proper operation by checking computer logs and visually inspecting the pump station, remote controllers, and irrigation heads.
A visual inspection should be carried out for leaks, misaligned or inoperable heads, and chronic wet or dry spots, so that adjustments can be made or replaced.
Flush irrigation lines regularly to minimize emitter clogging. To reduce sediment buildup, make flushing part of a regular maintenance schedule. If fertigating, prevent microbial growth by flushing all fertilizer from the lateral lines before shutting down the irrigation system.
Clean and maintain filtration equipment.
Systems must be observed in operation at least weekly. This process detects controller or communication failures, stuck or misaligned heads, and clogged or broken nozzles.
Check filter operations frequently. An unusual increase in the amount of debris may indicate problems with the water source.
Even under routine conditions, keeping filters operating properly prolongs the life of an existing system and reduces pumping costs.
Keep records of filter changes, as this could be an early sign of system corrosion, well problems, or declining irrigation water quality.
Application/distribution efficiencies should be checked annually. Conduct a periodic professional irrigation audit at least once every five years. Implement a PM program to replace worn components before they waste fertilizer, chemicals, and water.
Document equipment run-time hours.
Ensure that all lubrication, overhauls, and other preventive maintenance are completed according to the manufacturer’s schedule.
Monitor pump station power consumption. Monthly bills should be monitored over time to detect a possible increase in power usage. Compare the power used with the amount of water pumped. Requiring more power to pump the same amount of water may indicate a problem with the pump motor(s), control valves, or distribution system. Quarterly checks of amperage by qualified pump personnel may more accurately indicate increased power usage and thus potential problems.
Monitor and record the amount of water being applied, including system usage and rainfall. By tracking this information, you can identify areas where minor adjustments can improve performance. Not only is this information essential in identifying places that would benefit from a renovation, but it is also needed to compute current operating costs and compare possible future costs after a renovation.
Document and periodically review the condition of infrastructure (such as pipes, wires, and fittings).

System Maintenance

Principles

Course owners/superintendents do routine maintenance to ensure water quality and responsible use of the water supply.
System checks and routine maintenance include: pumps, valves, programs, fittings, and sprinklers.
To ensure that it is performing as intended, an irrigation system should be calibrated regularly by conducting periodic irrigation audits to check actual water delivery and nozzle efficiency.

Best Management Practices

Irrigation audits should be performed by trained technicians.
A visual inspection should first be conducted to identify necessary repairs or corrective actions. It is essential to make repairs before carrying out other levels of evaluation.
Pressure and flow should be evaluated to determine that the correct nozzles are being used and that the heads are performing according to the manufacturer’s specifications.
Pressure and flow rates should be checked at each head to determine the average application rate in an area.
Catch-can tests should be run to determine the uniformity of coverage and to accurately determine irrigation run times.
Catch-can testing should be conducted on the entire golf course to ensure that the system is operating at its highest efficiency.
Conduct an irrigation audit annually to facilitate a high-quality maintenance and scheduling program for the irrigation system.
Inspect for interference with water distribution.
Inspect for broken and misaligned heads.
Check that the rain sensor is present and functioning.
Inspect the backflow device to determine that it is in place and in good repair.
Examine turf quality and plant health for indications of irrigation malfunction or needs for scheduling adjustments.
Schedule documentation; make adjustments and repairs on items diagnosed during the visual inspection before conducting pressure and flow procedures.

Preventive Maintenance

In older systems, inspect irrigation pipe and look for fitting breaks caused by surges in the system.
Install thrust blocks to support conveyances.
The system should be inspected daily for proper operation by checking computer logs and visually inspecting the pump station, remote controllers, and irrigation heads. A visual inspection should be carried out for leaks, misaligned or inoperable heads, and chronic wet or dry spots so that adjustments can be made.
Maintain air-relief and vacuum-breaker valves.
Systems need to be observed in operation at least weekly to detect controller or communication failures, stuck or misaligned heads, and clogged or broken nozzles.
Check filter operations frequently; keeping filters operating properly prolongs the life of an existing system and reduces pumping costs.
Keep records of filter changes, as this could be an early sign of system corrosion, well problems, or declining irrigation water quality.
Application/distribution efficiencies should be checked annually.
Conduct a periodic professional irrigation audit at least once every five years.
Document equipment run-time hours. Ensure that all lubrication, overhauls, and other preventive maintenance are completed according to the manufacturer’s schedule.
Monitor the power consumption of pump stations for problems with the pump motors, control valves, or distribution system.
Qualified pump personnel should perform quarterly checks of amperage to accurately identify increased power usage that indicates potential problems.
Monitor and record the amount of water being applied, including system usage and rainfall. By tracking this information, you can identify areas where minor adjustments can improve performance.
Document and periodically review the condition of infrastructure (such as pipes, wires, and fittings). If the system requires frequent repairs, it is necessary to determine why these failures are occurring.
Increase frequency of routine inspection/calibration of soil moisture sensors that may be operating in high-salinity soils.
Winterize irrigation system to prevent damage.

Corrective Maintenance

Replace or repair all broken or worn components before the next scheduled irrigation.
Replacement parts should have the same characteristics as the original components.
Record keeping is an essential practice; document all corrective actions.

System Renovation

Appropriate golf course renovations can improve system efficiencies, conserve water, improve playability, and lower operating costs.
Correctly identify problems and their cost to determine which renovations are appropriate.
Determine the age of the system to establish a starting point for renovation.
Identify ways to improve system performance by maximizing the efficient use of the current system.
Routinely document system performance to maximize the effectiveness of the renovation.
Evaluate cost of renovation and its return on benefits both financial and management.

Winterization and Spring Startup

Principle

Winterization of the irrigation system is important to protect the system and reduce equipment failures resulting from freezing.

Best Management Practices

Conduct a visual inspection of the irrigation system: inspect for mainline breaks, low pressure at the pump, and head-to-head spacing.
Conduct a catch-can test to audit the system.
Flush and drain above-ground irrigation system components that could hold water.
Remove water from all conveyances and supply and distribution devices that may freeze with compressed air or open drain plugs at the lowest point on the system.
Clean filters, screens, and housing; remove drain plug and empty water out of the system.
Secure systems and close and lock covers/compartment doors to protect the system from potential acts of vandalism and from animals seeking refuge.
Remove drain plug and drain above-ground pump casings.
Record metering data before closing the system.
Secure or lock irrigation components and electrical boxes.
Perform pump and engine servicing/repair before winterizing.
Recharge irrigation in the spring with water and inspect for corrective maintenance issues.
Ensure proper irrigation system drainage design.

Sensor Technology

Principles

To prevent excess water use, irrigation scheduling should take into account plant water requirements, recent rainfall, recent temperature extremes, and soil characteristics.
Irrigation management and control devices need to be installed correctly for proper irrigation management.
Soil moisture sensors and other irrigation management tools should be installed in representative locations and maintained to to provide the information necessary for making good irrigation management decisions.
Rain gauges are necessary measurement tools to track how much rain has fallen at a specific site on the golf course. On some courses, more than one station may be necessary to get a complete measure of rainfall or evaporation loss. The use of soil moisture probes and inspections for visual symptoms such as wilting turf, computer models, and tensiometers may supplement these measurements. Computerized displays are available to help visualize the system.
Predictive models based on weather station data and soil types are also available. These are relatively accurate and applicable, especially as long-term predictors of annual turf water requirements.
Weather data such as rainfall, air and soil temperature, relative humidity, and wind speed are incorporated into certain model formulas, and soil moisture content is estimated. Models, however, are only as effective as the amount of data collected and the number of assumptions made.
It is best to have an on-site weather station to daily access weather information and ET to determine site specific water needs.

Best Management Practices

Irrigation controllers/timers should be reset as often as practically possible to account for plant growth requirements and local climatic conditions.
Properly calibrated flow meters, soil moisture sensors, rain shut-off devices, and/or other automated methods should be used to manage irrigation.
Irrigation rates should not exceed the maximum ability of the soil to absorb and hold the water applied in any one application.
Irrigation should not occur on a calendar-based schedule, but should be based on ET rates and soil moisture replacement.
Computerized control systems should be installed on all new course irrigation systems to help ensure efficient irrigation application. These allow for timing adjustments at every head.
Rain shut-off devices and rain gauges should be placed in open areas to prevent erroneous readings.
Use multiple soil moisture sensors/meters for accuracy and to reflect soil moisture levels.

Maintained Turf Areas

Principle

Courses should use well-designed irrigation systems with precision scheduling based on soil infiltration rates, soil water-holding capacity, plant water-use requirements, the depth of the root zone, and the desired level of turfgrass appearance and performance in order to maximize efficient watering.

Best Management Practices

The irrigation system should be designed and installed so that the putting surface, slopes, and surrounding areas can be watered independently.
Account for nutrients in effluent supply when making fertilizer calculations.
Install part-circle heads that conserve water and reduce unnecessary stress to greens and surrounds.
Avoid use of a global setting; make adjustments to watering times per head.
Base water times on actual site conditions for each head and zone.
Adjust irrigation run times based on current local meteorological data.
Use computed daily ET rate to adjust run times to meet the turf’s moisture needs.
Manually adjust automated ET data to reflect wet and dry areas on the course.
Install rain switches to shut down the irrigation system if enough rain falls in a zone.
Use soil moisture sensors to bypass preset or to create on-demand irrigation schedules.
Permanent irrigation sprinklers and other distribution devices should be spaced according to the manufacturer’s recommendations.
Spacing should be based on average wind conditions during irrigation.
Triangular spacing is more uniform than square spacing.
Periodically perform catch-can uniformity tests.
Reducing dry spots and soil compaction improves water infiltration, which in turn reduces water use and runoff in other areas.
Irrigation should occur in the early morning hours before air temperatures rise and relative humidity drops.
Base plant water needs on evapotranspiration rates, recent rainfall, recent temperature extremes and soil moisture.
Use mowing, verticutting, aeriation, wetting agents, nutrition, and other cultural practices to control water loss and to encourage conservation and efficiency.
Depending on physical soil characteristics and turf type, using solid-tine aeration equipment in place of verticutting is an option.
Slicing and spiking help relieve surface compaction and promote better water penetration and aeration.
Visually monitor for localized dry conditions or hot spots to identify poor irrigation efficiency or a failed system device.
Use predictive models to estimate soil moisture and the best time to irrigate.
Install in-ground (wireless) soil moisture sensors or use hand-held moisture meters in the root zone for each irrigation zone to enhance scheduled timer-based run times.
An irrigation system should also have high- and low-pressure sensors that shut down the system in case of breaks and malfunctions.
Place soil moisture sensors in a representative location of the irrigation zone.
Install soil moisture sensors in the driest irrigation zone of the irrigation system.
Wireless soil moisture systems should be installed to prevent damage from aeration.

Non-Play and Landscape Areas

Principles

Map any environmentally sensitive areas such as sinkholes, wetlands, or flood-prone areas, and identify species classified as endangered or threatened by federal and state governments, and state species of special concern.
Natural vegetation should be retained and enhanced for non-play areas to conserve water.
The most efficient and effective watering method for non-turf landscape is micro-irrigation.
Older golf courses may have more irrigated and maintained acres than are necessary. With the help of a golf course architect, golf professional, golf course superintendent, and other key personnel, the amount of functional turfgrass can be evaluated and transitioned into non-play areas.

Best Management Practices

Designate 50% to 70% of the non-play area to remain in natural cover according to “right-plant, right-place,” a principle of plant selection that favors limited supplemental irrigation and on-site cultural practices.
Incorporate natural vegetation in non-play areas.
Use micro-irrigation and low-pressure emitters in non-play areas to supplement irrigation.
Routinely inspect non-play irrigation systems for problems related to emitter clogging, filter defects, and overall system functionality.

Wellhead Protection

Principles

Wellhead protection is the establishment of protection zones and safe land-use practices around water supply wells in order to protect aquifers from accidental contamination. It also includes protecting wellheads from physical impacts, keeping them secure, and sampling wells according to the monitoring schedule required by the regulating authority, which is often a local health department or state department of environmental quality.
When installing new wells, contact the regulating authority to determine the permitting and construction requirements and the required isolation distances from potential sources of contamination.
Locate new wells up-gradient as far as possible from likely pollutant sources, such as petroleum storage tanks, septic tanks, chemical mixing areas, or fertilizer storage facilities.
Licensed water-well contractors may be needed to drill new wells to meet state requirements, local government code, and water management districts’ well-construction permit requirements.

Best Management Practices

Use backflow-prevention devices at the wellhead, on hoses, and at the pesticide mix/load station to prevent contamination of the water source.
Properly plug abandoned or flowing wells.
Surround new wells with bollards or a physical barrier to prevent impacts to the wellhead.
Inspect wellheads and the well casing at least annually for leaks or cracks; make repairs as needed.
Maintain records of new well construction and modifications to existing wells.
Obtain a copy of the well log for each well to determine the local geology and how deep the well is; these factors will have a bearing on how vulnerable the well is to contamination.
Sample wells for contaminants according to the schedule and protocol required by the regulating authority.
Never apply a fertilizer or pesticide next to a wellhead.
Never mix and load pesticides next to a wellhead if not on a pesticide mix/load pad.